Journal
The Journal of
Equine Studies
and
Equestrian Education
___________________________________________________________________
Volume 3 Numbers 1 & 2
Online Publication
__________________ A Publication of Europa University Press__________________
ISSN 1537-1182
Special focus on Arabians in this issue
We apologize to those of you who have been checking to see if this normal
issue of the journal was back up on the Internet these last months. Hackers,
spammers, technical problems, and a loss of files during a switch of hosting
servers, overwhelmed us. So, we had to slowly chip away at the multiple
layers of problems and reconstruct things as time allowed. Some additional
material originally intended for a separate second issue of Volume 3
will be added to this combined issue near the end of the year, and Volume
4 should be ready early next year.
INDEX
Articles
Data that Changed Views on Arabians in the
Early 20th Century
The Arab Horse, by Col. Spencer Borden
Results of Five Endurance Tests, by W.R. Brown
Reviews
Book Review: Introduction to Horse Biology,
Zoe Davis
Book Retroview: The Arabian in Arabia, Alexis
Wrangel
Contact the Journal
Previous Issues
Data that changed views on Arabians in Early
20th Century America
One of the primary aims of the Journal of Equine Studies and Equestrian
Education is to show how the a body of true scientific knowledge can be
built in this field, and how such knowledge differs from opinions and anecdotal
information. The change in attitudes towards Arabian horse in America in
the first part of the 20th century provides an example of this process.
In the early 21st century, we take the Arab/Arabian horse for granted.
Opinions may differ as to their desirability for certain activities compared
to other breeds, but they are very much part of the equestrian scene across
the whole range of events and activities, and it is hard to imagine that
it wasn't always so. However, this was not the case at the beginning of
the 20th century, particularly in the USA. There were few Arabians
in America at the time. Many of the most highly respected authorities in
the equestrian field even refused to recognize Arabians as a distinct breed,
and few people were willing to accept that the small horses with dished-in
faces could hold their own in comparison to, or competition with, the larger
breeds, much less excel in a number of areas. Thus, there was obviously
a great change in attitude sometime in the last 100 years. How did it come
about?
There were, even in the 1700s and 1800s, those in the US who recognized
the qualities of Arabians, yet their attempts to make others aware of them
were generally dismissed as just biased opinions. Some proponents of Arabians
tried to document the facts they presented. One such attempt was the following
1913 article by Col. Borden arguing for introduction of Arabian blood
into US military horses, which made some excellent points. The examples
he gave from military history concerning the performance of the Arabian
horses were indeed very impressive. However, such documentable accounts
were still only anecdotal, and thus did not prove more than isolated instances
of the abilities of Arabians, much less allow them to be compared on an
objective basis with other horse. It would have been possible to find the
same sort of anecdotal accounts of exceptional performance by other breeds,
including some of similar, smaller than average, size. Thus, the argument
about the relative merits of Arabians continued based primarily on opinions,
with the proponents of Arabians making few converts to their views..
Truly meaningful and persuasive evidence of Arabians' qualities came
a decade later in military sponsored endurance tests. Data pertaining to
Arabians' performance in those competitions were presented in the
second article below, by W.R. Brown, in 1923. The data
from Arabians and other breeds taking part in the same tests, even
though they were not perfectly controlled scientific experiments, provided
a means for objective comparison of performance both in absolute
terms and relative to the different breeds' average characteristics. If
the only information obtained and presented was that individual Arabian
horses had won the majority of those endurance tests, it might have been
dismissed by skeptics as having been purely by chance. However, the full
data showed that proportionate to their numbers, the Arabians consistently
performed significantly better in most respects despite their disadvantage
in ratio of weight of horse to weight of load carried, in test after
test over a series of several years. Thus, the technique of collecting
data from controlled and well monitored tests, and analyzing it in
a scientific manner, finally provided indisputable evidence of those characteristics
that many had longed claimed Arabians exhibited but which so many detractors
had refused to believe. Having been published in the Cavalry Journal, this
information reached not only military officers but also many civilians
who were most influential in riding, training, and breeding circles . Had
it not been just at the point when cavalry was beginning to lose its importance
in the military, and horses were rapidly disappearing from non-recreational
civilian use, the impact would undoubtedly have been greater and the popularity
of Arabians would likely have risen even faster. Some additional
comments on the tests, the data produced, and Brown's presentation
of them, are given at the end of his article.
THE ARAB HORSE
By Colonel Spencer Borden
(Written in 1913)
It was the fashion a few years ago to claim that the Arab horse did
not exist , excepting as a figment of the imagination. Scientists, later,
were compelled to acknowledge that there was such a horse, and that he
differed from all others even in his anatomy.
Then a claim was put forward that what was called an Arab was really
an African horse, originating in Lybia [spelling variation at the time
written], the country lying between Egypt and Tripoli, on the shores of
the Mediterranean.
These wise people even asserted that the horses we had always called
Arabians were never in Arabia until after the beginning of the Christian
era, some saying they came from Egypt, others that they were sent from
Cappadocia, north of the Taurus mountains, on the Black Sea. The fact that
no such horses remain either in Lybia or in Capadoccia [Turkey], although
they are numerous in Arabia, caused no embarrassment to these pundits.
Had such theorists gotten their Xenophon or Herodotus from the upper
shelves of their book-cases, certain embarrassing facts might have caused
them to modify their contention.
They would have learned that Semiramis who succeeded her husband Nimrod
-- builder of Nineveh -- had an army in which it is said there were 300,000
cavalry, with which she invaded India, before she started to build Babylon.
Nineveh is perpetuated by the present town of Mosul, built on its site
on the Tigris River in what is now Iraq but is the northeastern part of
the geographic region traditionally known as Arabia. Similarly, the ruins
of Babylon are near Baghdad on the Euphrates River, and traditionally considered
the primary point of origin of what became known as Arabia.
We are forced to believe therefore, that there were some horses in Arabia
at least 3500 years B.C. Not only is this certain from the written record,
their representation is preserved in bas-reliefs in stone uncovered by
Layard, when he explored the ruins of Nineveh in the middle of the nineteenth
century. These show horses of the Arabian horse size and type, ridden by
men making use of them in a manner such as no horse but an Arab was ever
known to stand up to. The riders are hunting lions with spears and arrows.
It is notorious to this day that no horse but an Arab has the courage to
face a lion or a wild boar.
[There followed a few paragraphs citing the above mentioned sources
from the classical age, along with 19th century archaeological finds, providing
evidence of Arab type horses in Arabia thousands of years ago. That evidence
that has been added to and superseded by even better and more conclusive
archaeological evidence in support of the early existence of Arab horses
in Arabia found in the last century. So, those paragraphs were omitted.-
editor ]
And now in our day [circa 1913 - ed.] and country, certain "progressive"
Americans suggest that though there may have been Arab horses and they
may have been good enough a long time ago, they are not such as would be
suited to our modern conditions and American climate. The greater part
of such people probably never saw an Arab horse.
In other lands the Arabian is sought after and valued at his true worth.
The Hungarian Government has a stud of Arab horses at Babolna, established
in 1790. In their official account of this stud, the Hungarian Department
of Agriculture tells us, -- "The original purpose for which the stud at
Balbona was established, was that it might breed foundation stock that
could contribute a progressive element in raising the quality of its horses."
In France the government also uses Arab blood for "raising the quality
of its horses". In 1906 the Republic had 579 such animals, pure-bred or
half-breds in its government stud.
In Austria, the famous Lippizan horses, the oldest established breed
next to the Arab, have been bred carefully to a type at Lippiza, near Trieste
(from which place the breed takes its name) since the stud was established
in 1585. As Austria and Hungary, however, are joined under a common ruler
[in the early 20th century - ed.], most of their cavalry horses come from
Hungary. Baron Slatin -- brother of the famous Slatin Pasha -- told the
writer of these lines in 1911: "We believe the horses bred in Hungary are
the best cavalry mounts in the world. They are not too large, and have
great proportion of Arab blood in them."
In the great Russian Imperial Strelski stud, devoted to horses of Eastern
blood, they had 408 breeding animals, 81 of them pure Arabs in 1889.
Italy, since the days of Givoanni de la Bande Nere, the greatest of
the Medician generals, has never missed an opportunity to secure Arabian
blood. Christopher Hare, in his "Romance of a Medici Warrior" tells us
that Giovanni, writing to his agent Fortunati, from his camp at Pesaro,
under date of April 14, 1517 says: "And besides, I am badly mounted. You
must send me the best and finest Arab horses that you can get in Florence,
for mine are all out of condition,"
Of him Hare tells us: "In our war he would replace the heavy cavalry,
the cumbersome armor, the slow massive horses which it required, by light,
active Arab horses, easily managed and full of spirit, ridden by agile
men lightly equipped."
We also learn that at Vaprio, "He was riding that splendid white Arab
horse, Sultan -- who was to survive him and never suffer another rider
-- and he turned his head toward the rushing torrent; the noble animal
leaped into the river and swam across, his master sitting firmly on the
saddle with his lance at rest."
So today also, the Italian Government secures every pure Arab they can
lay hands on, having agents in the East at all times to procure them. In
1903 they had fifty-five pure Arab stallions in the Italian royal studs.
Turkey had, in 1900, four studs of horses, for producing cavalry horses,
one at Schifteler (where were fifty-five purebred Arabs, eleven half-breeds,
thirteen Hungarian, and eleven Russian stallions, with 600 brood mares),
another at Sultan Lou, in the province of Harpoot, one at Tchon Korova,
province of Adana, one at Vezirie, near Bagdad. The raison d'etre of the
last, especially, is plainly asserted: "The object of this stud is to promote
the breeding of the best Arab strains."
Can it be that all these people are mistaken, and only those Americans
are correct who assert that in these days Arabs are not good horses, they
lack in endurance? Many great soldiers would differ with them, some in
bygone days, some in our own times.
Washington rode a son of the Lindsey Arabian through our own war of
independence. Bonaparte pinned his faith to the white Arab, Marengo, that
carried him through his campaigns in Egypt, and the freezing retreat from
Russia. His stuffed skin is still preserved in Paris. Wellington would
trust himself to nothing but an Arab horse. Kitchner and "little Bobs,"
Field-Marshall Lord Roberts, will ride no others. There is a photograph
of the horse Vonolel, as he appeared at the head of Queen Victoria's jubilee
procession, wearing on his breast two medals presented to the horse by
her Majesty, one for the Afghan wars, another for his service in Africa.
At the time the picture was made Vonolel was twenty-seven years old. He
carried Lord Roberts for twenty-two consecutive years, through all his
campaigns in Afghanistan, India, Burmah, South Africa, had covered in his
campaigns 50,000 miles and never once been lame or sick. We are told that
Sysonby is the greatest of all thoroughbred horses. His skeleton stands
besides that of the Arab horse Nimur in the Museum of the American Society
of Natural History, in New York.
Sysonby is said to have won $170,000 [this is circa 1900 when the US
dollar was worth many times more, and horse racing wasn't as big a business
as today -- ed.] for his owner, the late James R. Keene, and to have died
an unbeaten race horse. Yet Sysonby reached the end of his career when
four years old. In winning $170,00 the total distance he ran in all his
races added one to the end of the other, was twelve and a half miles.
The history of the XIXth Dragoons (English) who went with Kitchner to
Kartoum, is familiar to all modern soldiers. They had to abandon their
big English horses at Cairo, were mounted on Syrian Arabs, averaging 14.1
and these carried them nine months through the desert, sometimes for seventy
hours without water, with an average loss of about twelve percent of the
horses.
Colonel Gore of the Inniskillen Dragoons rode a pure Arab through the
whole South Africa campaign. It is reported that "this horse was never
sick nor sorry, lasting out four picked horses which his master brought
with him from Ireland."
Many other instances proving the sagacity, endurance, and soundness
of these wonderful horses must be omitted that this paper go not too far
beyond the limits set for its length. A single one nearer home may interest
readers.
Captain Frank Tompkins, of the Eleventh Cavalry, U.S.A, Superintendent
of Military instruction at Norwick University, Northfiled, Vermont, tried
a little Arab he has, on the thirtieth of October, 1912, over the hills
of Vermont.
Having occasion to go to Fort Ethan Allen, Burlington, Captain Tompkins
rode the five year old Arab horse Razzia fifty miles in the morning, attended
to his business at Fort Ethan Allen, and rode him back to Northfield the
same day. The horse carried one hundred and seventy-five pounds on his
back; the entire time on the road was fifteen hours thirty minutes; and
he was never distressed. The next morning he was in condition to repeat
the feat. As he had no special preparation for the test, and several showers
during the day had made the road slippery, it would surely seem that this
is the kind of horse that might contribute something useful to the breed
of American horses. He would appear to measure up to the description Captain
W. A. Kerr, V.C. gives to Arab horses, as animals, "whose blood (no matter
in what channel directed, or with what plebeian puddle mingled), has ever
brought improvement in some shape or other, but mainly in respect to quality,
stamina, nervous energy, ivory-like bone, tough hoof, and hereditary soundness."
***
Results of Five Endurance Tests
by
W.R.Brown
The following data, gathered from the official records of 102 horses,
of all breeds, entered in five endurance tests for the United States Mounted
Service Cup, which have been held in the East, are here presented for the
consideration of those asking for facts rather than bias or opinion from
preconceived ideas, or planning to select and train horses for future tests
of this kind:
Test 1 -- held October 14 to 18, 1919, 306 miles in 5 days between Fort
Ethan Allen, Burlington, Vt., and Camp Devens, Mass., 14 entries, all breeds
--was won by Arabian mare Ramla, 14-3, 850 pounds, ridden by Albert W.
Harris, of Chicago, for W. R. Brown, owner, Maynesboro Arabian Stud, Berlin,
N.H., in 51 hours 26 minutes, carrying 200 pounds. Score: Speed, 23 6/25;
condition, 50/50; feed, 19 3/25; total, 92.9 per cent. Ramla repeated the
following year for 260 miles with 245 pounds in 51 hours.
Test 2 -- held October 15 to 19, 1920, 306 miles in 5 days between Fort
Ethan Allen, Burlington, Vt., and Camp Devens, Mass., 27 entries,
all breeds --was won by Thoroughbred grade Mlle. Denis, 15-2, 980 pounds,
ridden by Major Stanley Koch, of Washington, for himself as owner, in 46
hours 57 minutes, carrying 245 pounds. Score: Speed, 36 1/40; condition,
40/50; feed 6 9/10; total 83 percent.
Test 3 -- held October 10 to 14, 1921, 310 miles in 5 days between Camp
Alfred Vail, Redbank, N.J., and Washington Monument, D.C., 17 entries,
all breeds --was won by Arabian gelding Crabbet, 15.2, 925 pounds, ridden
by Jack Humphrey, for W. R. Brown owner, Maynesboro Arabian Stud, Berlin,
N.H., in 49 hours 4 minutes, carrying 245 pounds. Score: Speed, 29/40;
condition, 55/60; total, 84 per cent. Crabbet took fifth prize in
the 1919 test and fifth prize in the 1920 test.
Test 4 -- held October 8 to 13, 1922, 300 miles in 5 days between Fort
Ethan Allen, Burlington, Vt., and Camp Devens, Mass., 21 entries, all breeds
--was won by Thoroughbred Vendetta, 15-2, 1,012 pounds, ridden by Major
Louis Beard, of Front Royal, Va., for J. Watson Webb, of Brandon, Vt.,
owner, in 45 hours 17 minutes, carrying 225 pounds. Score: Speed, 39/40;
condition, 56/60; total 95 percent.
Test 5 -- held October 15 to 19, 1923, 300 miles in 5 days at and around
Avon, N.Y., 23 entries, all breeds --was won by Anglo-Arab demi-sang Gouya,
15.3, 983 pounds, ridden by Ted Collier, for W. R. Brown owner, Maynesboro
Arabian Stud, Berlin, N.H., in 45 hours, carrying 225 pounds. Score: Speed,
40/40; condition, 58/60; total, 98 per cent. Gouya went 90 miles
in 1921 test and 300 miles in 1922 test.
Cup won permanently by W. R. Brown owner, Maynesboro Arabian Stud, Berlin,
N.H., through three winnings.
One hundred and two contestants started in the five tests, of which
24 had 50 per cent or more of Arabian blood; 27 had 50 per cent or more
of Morgan blood; 36 had 50 per cent or more of Thoroughbred blood; 9 were
Anglo-Arabs, a mixture of Thoroughbred and Arab, with 4 Kentucky saddle
horses and 2 Standardbred or Trotting horses. This gives a sufficient number
of Arabs, Morgans, and Thoroughbreds for comparison, but not enough Kentucky
or Trotting-bred horses to make a fair comparison; so the last two will
be left out.
While it is true that many unsuitable horses were entered, this was
equally the case in Arabs, Morgans, and Thoroughbreds, and the interest
was sufficiently keen and enough money spent by the backers of the different
breeds to secure, in most instances, the best specimens possible and give
them adequate training; so that it is idle to say that the breeds were
not well represented. In some instances horses and riders were brought
in from long distances and were trained for some months by their owners
at the place where the test was to be held. It is interesting to note in
this connection that there are perhaps not over 300 Arabs in this country
to be drawn upon and a relatively small number abroad, while there are
perhaps 4,000 Morgans in the United States and 16,000 Thoroughbreds; so
that the opportunity of selection among Arabs was vastly less.
As to age, horses of all breeds averaged close to eight years, the most
desirable age at which to test the maximum power of a horse. In height,
Arabs and Morgans averaged 15 hands with Thoroughbreds and Anglo-Arabs
averaging 16 hands. Grades of all breeds averaged 15-2 , which is probably
the most efficient height for a test of this kind, taking into consideration
the ratio of speed, load, and distance.
In weight at the start, Arab blood averaged 903 pounds, Morgan blood
961 pounds, Anglo-Arab blood 1,000 pounds, and Thoroughbred blood 1,025
pounds. The smallest horses were pure-blooded Arabs, which averaged 860
pounds, and pure-blooded Morgans which averaged 918 pounds, the largest
being the Irish Hunters, which averaged 1,074 pounds. The average weight
of all horses was 976 pounds, which, it will be assumed, is the best weight
for the speed, load, and distance.
The load carried in the first test was 200 pounds; in the second and
third, 245 pounds; in the fourth and fifth, 225 pounds, being theoretically
the weight of the ordinary cavalryman, varying from 130 to 175 pounds,
plus the ordinary equipment, with saddle, of 70 pounds. The average load
carried in all the tests was 230 pounds, and all the horses in each test
were required to carry the same load. The ratio of load carried to the
weight of the horse is most interesting when compared with the distance
accomplished, the speed attained, and the condition at the finish, as shown
by the following table:
From the above it will be seen that a very considerable weight handicap
was placed on the smaller horses of Arab and Morgan blood, but that they
succeeded in carrying the same load a relatively longer distance than the
larger horses, with less leg trouble of all kinds, but at a sacrifice of
speed, in which the horses of Thoroughbred blood surpassed. An equal, if
not superior, rate of speed was attained, however, by the Anglo-Arabs (the
Thoroughbred-Arab cross), as was demonstrated in the last test. This soundness
of leg and constitution in the Arab was also demonstrated in the ability
to repeat, Arab blood having finished 1 horse 4 times, 1 horse 3 times,
1 horse twice, and 5 horses once, as against Morgan blood having finished
1 horse 3 times, 1 horse twice, and 5 horses once; and as against Thoroughbred
blood having finished 1 horse 3 times, 2 horses twice, and 8 horses once.
Concerning the number of finishing horses out of the starters and the
number that took prizes (all horses making the distance are called finishers)
:
Feed being a feature in the first two tests, with a 25 per cent and
10 per cent score, it was found that horses with Arab blood were consuming
at an average of one-quarter to one-half only as much food as larger horses
of other blood in doing the same work, and kept in equally as good condition.
From tables showing the results of these tests the following conclusions
can be fairly drawn: That the Arab possesses more endurance and weight-carrying
ability and low feed consumption, with freedom from unsoundness, than any
other breed, but that when handicapped with a larger proportion of his
weight is obliged to proceed at a slower pace; that the Morgan possesses
many of the qualities of the Arab but in a lesser degree; and that horses
of Thoroughbred blood excel only in speed; that the Arab grade, particularly
the Trotting and Thoroughbred cross, obtain more height and size, is up
to [carrying] more weight and can achieve more speed, but is not as sound
as the pure Arab; that the Morgan grade is larger than the pure Morgan,
but is inferior; that the Thoroughbred grade varies only from the Thoroughbred
in being somewhat shorter (with the exception of the Irish Hunter) and
making somewhat less speed; that the legs of the pure Thoroughbred are
subject to lameness from the concussion of carrying heavy weight over long
distances on hard roads, even though their nerves, courage, and recuperative
ability, especially as to recovering of weight, are unexcelled; that the
Morgan in himself makes a very good endurance horse, but is not prepotent
enough to be impressive in the grades; that a mixture of Arab and Thoroughbred
blood can equal both in endurance and speed and is a desirable cross, as
it furnishes registerable blood that can be gone on with, increases the
size of the Arab and decreases the size of the Thoroughbred, and gives
assurance of a fixed and prepotent type; that such a conclusion has been
arrived at in a general way in France and other continental countries where
stallions of both breeds are used [in the equivalent of the U.S.
Remount], and particularly in Hungary, where a superior native horse has
been produced by the admixture of these two bloods over the past century;
that whatever our predilections for some breed may be for certain services,
only selfish lack of consideration for our soldiers in the extremity of
war will allow us to ignore the facts brought out in these tests and keep
us from acting in full measure upon them.
Reviewer comments: Although five endurance tests involving 102 horses
(i.e. an average of just over 20 horses per competition) provided a rather
limited sample and number of observations, the numbers were adequate
to allow valid comparison of the performance of the different breeds. Had
the performance of the several breeds been very close and/or varied greatly
in relation to one another from year to year, a greater number of tests,
involving larger numbers of horses, would have been required to obtain
more meaningful data and draw conclusions with any certainty.
In this case, however, the results showed clear differences in performance,
and were relatively consistent across the five tests over a period of five
years. Those factors make it extremely unlikely that the results were due
to chance, or to the inclusion of a few atypical horses, or to other anomalies.
Although larger samples would have allowed more precise quantification
of the differences in performance, the sample available provided enough
data to show what the differences were and give an indication of their
extent.
Although a true "random sample" of horses of each breed being compared
would have been the ideal and produced the best data, the "self-selected"
sample of entrants provided a relatively fair comparison of horses which
were all selected and trained for the endurance tests. The fact that the
pool of Arabians in the US which supplied the Arabian entrants was much
smaller than those from which the Morgans and Thoroughbreds were drawn
makes their performance all the more impressive. Fewer horses from which
to draw the perceived "best" ones for such tests could be expected to produce
a weaker group of entrants. Thus the Arabians' performance could have been
expected to have been poorer than the other breeds. Had it been so, it
could have been discounted due to that fact, and only if confirmed by additional
tests with a fairer sampling could it have been considered a true measure
of the Arabians's performance. Since the Arabians in fact performed better
than the other breeds, it can be assumed that had they been drawn from
as large a pool as the entrants of other breeds, the Arabian entrants would
have ben of even better quality and performance.
Differing Observations on the Dietary Requirements of Arabian Horses
As is widely known, and supported by the data from the two of the five
endurance tests presented in the article in this issue that included the
amount of food consumed, Arabians require significantly less food than
larger breeds. Even on a pound for pound comparison with breeds of all
types and sizes, their consumption is among the lowest of any of the horse
breeds.
However, in various studies of, and literature about, Arabians, conflicting
information emerges concerning of what quality that lesser amount of food
needs to be. As indicated in the endurance test article, and in the experience
of most Arabian owners in North America, Arabians tend to be finicky eaters
and require relatively refined diets. However, in his book The Arabian
in Arabia, reviewed elsewhere in this issue, Alexis Wrangel recounted
that a White Russian cavalry officer of WW I had told him that during a
hard campaign in the Carpathian mountains all the horses of a cavalry regiment
were starved and hardly alive "except for two Arabians who were quite happy
eating the thatched roofs off the miserable huts of the Ruthenian peasants!"(The
Arabian in Arabia, p.29) Wrangel noted that this was not surprising because
as he observed in their native areas of Arabia, during much of the year
vegetation was scarce and what was available was generally coarse and low
in nutrition, so they had obviously developed the ability to survive on
such. Some of the historical examples cited by Col. Spencer Borden
in the article reprinted in this issue also lead to the inference that
the Arabians which did well in some of those situations would have been
getting limited and poor quality food.
Although the evidence on both sides is largely anecdotal, it comes in
each case from knowledgeable observers, so the discrepancy seems like more
than just the result of conflicting opinions. On further investigation
it appears that both sets of observations are actually correct. The explanation
can be found in an article by Colonel P. M. Dobrynin (V.S. Russian Veterinary
Corps) "The Thoroughbred - The Best Type of the Cavalry Horse". In discussing
the durability of the characteristics of thoroughbreds in cross-breeding,
Col. Dobrynin notes "[The thoroughbred] is the same in Europe, America,
in a word all the world over. All climatic conditions which bring about
the complete loss of the primaeval type in other races (the Arab in Russia
is not the Arab in Africa as may be observed at the Bielovodsk Government
Studs) have but little influence upon the thoroughbred....." Apparently
the environment in Russia had led to the development of some characteristics
in Arabians different from those which developed in the breed elsewhere
such as Africa. It can thus be inferred that other environments and situations
would likewise have led to other changes. This can explain how those Arabians
in Eastern Europe retained the ability to survive on poorer forage than
most breeds while those in America lost it. The Arabians in North America
generally came via Western Europe and Britain from horses owned by wealthy
individuals for their personal use. Thus, the majority of Arabians that
reached America would have developed from a relatively few animals which
were bred in situations where they had ample grain and high quality
forage. After many generations of not needing to survive on the limited,
coarse, desert vegetation, the ability to do so may have been lost -- particularly
if those best able to survive on such poor diets were also those most likely
to succumb to problems like founder in an environment with much richer
food. In contrast, the Arabians in Eastern Europe were significantly
closer to their source, and present in greater numbers. The social and
political situations in that part of the world meant that although Arabians
might have generally been owned by wealthier individuals, periodically
most of those in the region would have been pressed into military service,
during which they would have had to endure shortages of not only grain,
but, as mentioned by Wrangel, even fodder -- with some earlier conflicts
in the area over the centuries having ded the countryside far worse
than was the case in WW I. There were also occasional droughts and famines
in peacetime, the effects of which even reached many of the horses of the
wealthy.
Although further research is needed before it can be accepted without
qualification that this is the definitive explanation for the differing
accounts of Arabian's dietary requirements, it illustrates why information
on equestrian subjects coming from single sources, even when containing
accurate observations, can not be assumed to be universally applicable.
************************
Reviews
BOOK REVIEW
Introduction to Horse Biology
Author: Zoe Davis
Publisher: Blackwell Publishing Ltd
(online bookstore www.blackwellpublishing.com )
Pages: 224 - Paperback
Price: £16.99 / $34.99
ISBN: 1405121629
Reviewed by Leonard Leshuk
To develop a true understanding of horses' behavior, performance,
and physical needs, it is necessary to understand their biological make
up and functions. For those equestrians without extensive education in
the biological sciences, it can be difficult to get a grasp on this somewhat
complex subject. Introduction to Horse Biology puts this scientific
information into a form that does not require having previous training
in biology to follow and understand. Written to provide the necessary background
in horse biology for students planning to undertake academic programs in
equine studies, it is an excellent book for that purpose. However, it can
be of equal value to those who are not planning on formal studies. American
readers may at first glance be a bit intimidated by the references on the
back cover and in the preface to the various British academic courses and
examinations for which the book will prepare students. Once they start
reading the book itself though, they will find that it is clearly written
and logically arranged, and thus easily understandable even by those without
academic orientation. The first few chapters deal largely with basic general
biological terms and principles, linking them to horses when appropriate.
The rest of the book focuses more specifically on horse biology/physiology,
with the scientific information presented in a way which makes the practical
significance and applications obvious.
The format of Introduction to Horse Biology is essentially that
of a self-guided textbook, yet it can also function as a reference
book. It fills the wide gap between the brief and usually very incomplete
sections on biological aspects found in general books on the horse, and
the unwieldy advanced veterinary texts and reference books which assume
the user has an extensive background in biology and the vocabulary of veterinary
medicine. And despite being written as a book on horse biology, it can
even serve in many respects as an elementary text and reference book on
biology in general, since much of the information is applicable to other
animals and even humans. It is the sort of book that one should pick up
first when seeking quick answers to questions that arise concerning basic
biology/physiology of horses and to related questions about their care.
Even in the cases where it cannot provide the answers, consulting it first
can refresh those who don't have formal veterinary training, on the
scientific principles and terms before they go on to consult more specialized
books.
A basic work such as this has to limit itself as to the depth of coverage
of the various aspects of the subject. Thus, there are a few cases in which
chapters, or sections within them, end a bit abruptly, and that may leave
the reader wishing those particular topics could have been developed more
fully. Similarly, the five appendixes at the end of the book, only two
of which are horse specific, seem like the start of a collection of lists,
charts, and tables that could have made the book even more useful, but
which was disappointingly stopped short. On the whole though, this book
provides a wealth of solid information of the sort which anyone who owns
or works with horses needs and can continually put to use. Its a book that
many will want for their personal libraries, and definitely is a book that
would be beneficial, and would be continually read and consulted, in any
public or institutional library which is used by equestrians.
As useful as this book may be for giving those students entering equine
studies programs the proper basic foundation in horse biology, I would
like to suggest that it may be even more useful as a way of getting
young people who have an interest in horses to take an interest in biology
and other sciences. There has been discussion and controversy in academia
recently concerning the extent to which women have the inclination to pursue
advanced studies in scientific fields. It seems that giving a copy
of Introduction to Horse Biology to a young woman of secondary school
age who has a passion for equestrian pursuits but no definite academic
and career direction, would be a very effective way to expose her to how
science relates to, and can benefit her in, something she enjoys, and thus
perhaps ignite a similar passion for scientific learning in general that
might carry her on to formal studies and a career in a scientific field.
BOOK RETROVIEW
Most journals review only newly released books. However, as has been
shown by some of the articles in this journal, much valuable older factual
information was published but then forgotten, allowing the dubious opinions
of successive generations of uneducated equestrian "gurus" to predominate
in recent decades. It is the same with books; there being many older
books which contain more true knowledge on some equestrian subjects than
less well researched books of more recent years. Now with the Internet,
it is possible to find and purchase used copies of most older books, as
well being easier to have your local or research library request books
on inter-library loan. So, the Journal of Equine Studies will present brief
reviews, or "retroviews", of some older books which either surpass more
recent works on the same subjects, or which contain unique information
and perspectives, particularly when those subjects relate to articles in
the Journal.
The Arabian in Arabia
by Alexis Wrangel
Publisher : J.A. Allen & Co. Ltd., London, 1962 (out of print)
, 95 pages.
(Can be found in the collections of a number of research libraries
in the EU and North America, and probably even in some public libraries.
Available used, but demand from Arabian enthusiasts and collectors of equestrian
books tends to keep the price of used copies £14/$30 or higher. )
This relatively short book is written in a popular rather than scholarly
style, yet provides some uncommon and very good insight on Arabian horses,
particularly as to riding and training in their region of origin. Alexis
Wrangel, the son of Petr Wrangel the famous Russian cavalry officer of
WW I and of the civil war that followed in the wake of the Russian Revolution,
grew up with that background of the Imperial Russian horsemanship from
the end of the cavalry age. Through his association with influential riding
instructors like Vladimir Littauer who came from that same tradition,
he contributed to the evolution of modern competitive and recreational
riding during the mid-twentieth century. Thus, his views on Arabian horses
reflected both the utilitarian considerations of the last of the traditional
cavalrymen, and the aesthetic and competitive perspectives of modern equestrians.
The Arabian in Arabia offers many astute observations on the Arabs'
methods of breeding, training, and riding. It reveals the origins of a
number of the traits of Arabian horses, and notes some of the ways that
these horses have subsequently changed through breeding in other countries.
Although a very practical look at these horses and their origins, it still
includes interesting local folklore concerning Arabian horses which, like
most folklore, must be viewed in its cultural context and not taken as
necessarily based in fact. It also gives some insight on the culture of
the Arab people who developed this breed. For example Wrangel points out
that horses are associated with luck, and notes that even the Islamic religious
books of the Koran and Haddith (which came long after the Arabian breed
was developed) place mares as the material possessions to be most
highly valued. This is in sharp contrast to other cultures/religions from
the same area, in which there have traditionally been negative attitudes
towards horses, and whose religious books tend to associate horses with
evil and destruction.
Being from an international background, Alexis Wrangel brought broad
knowledge to his writing on this subject. That is one of the strong points
of the book, though in a few cases it requires the reader to question whether
a particular bit of information is universally applicable. A good example
is the observation about the dietary requirements of Arabian horses examined
elsewhere in this issue of the Journal; although initially a bit confusing,
it ultimately provides some important information which allows us to better
understand the divergence of Arabians' characteristics, and their respective
needs in various countries.
This is probably not the first or only book that someone casually interested
in Arabian horses would want to read, but it is definitely a book that
anyone wanting to become a true authority on Arabian horses should read
to broaden his or her knowledge and perspective. Alexis Wrangel helped
to bring about the transition from 19th century attitudes to 21st century
attitudes concerning Arabians with this book. He was also among those who
helped transform the sport of riding in the 20th century. Unfortunately,
Wrangel has produced few other published works. He contributed a couple
of chapters to one of Littauer's books on riding, but the other works written
solely by him have been limited to a history of the last great cavalry
battles of the post-revolution period in Eastern Europe and a biography
of his father. That lack of other books specifically on riding and horses
by this uncommon horseman makes The Arabian in Arabia all
the more a special and intriguing part of modern equestrian history.
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(previous issues follow below)
The Journal of
Equine Studies
and
Equestrian Education
___________________________________________________________________
Volume 1 Number 3
Online Publication
__________________ A Publication of Europa University Press__________________
ISSN 1537-1182
This issue of The Journal of Equine Studies
presents some studies done in the early part of the 20th century, not only
for the information they contain, but also to draw attention to the fact
that even much of the valuable research work that was done in the past
has not been readily available to people working in this field today. Meanwhile,
a call for articles has gone out to the departments devoted
to, or which offer some courses in, equine studies at colleges and
universities. From those teaching and studying at such institutions, as
well as from those among the non-academic readership, it is hoped there
will be a steady flow of material submitted that will expedite the online
publication of future issues. For the convenience of those who are first
time readers of JES, the previous issue which gives additional background
on the need for a scientific approach in this field and how this journal
is addressing them is appended to the bottom of this issue.
INDEX
1.) Purpose and Goals of The Journal of Equine
Studies
2.) Articles
Effects
of hair and skin color on survival and endurance of horses in various climates
Weight
distribution between front and back hooves, and influence of head angle
3.) Editor's column
4.) Call for articles
5.) Research methods tutorial
previous issue
Purpose and goals of The Journal
of Equine Studies and Equestrian Education
The Journal of Equine Studies and
Equestrian Education was created to fill the need for a peer-reviewed
scientific journal that focuses on the many aspects of riding, training,
and raising horses which extend beyond the bounds of the veterinary and
agricultural sciences, and have not usually been approached and studied
in a scientific manner. The goal is to expand the definitive scientific
knowledge in this field by encouraging scientific research, particularly
by experiment, and providing a forum for publication of such work. The
scope also includes scholarly historical research of interest and value
to equestrians, and the re-publication of earlier works in the field which
are not otherwise readily accessible.
return to index
The Effects of Hair and Skin
Color on Survival and Endurance of Horses in Various Climates
A primary motivation for the creation of the Journal of
Equine Studies was the lack of good definitive scientifically derived
information even in areas such as equine endurance where observation and
measurement should be relatively easy. For example, a relatively
comprehensive contemporary book on endurance riding/racing was unable to
provide a meaningful answer to, much less any scientific data on, the very
basic question of whether dark colored horses are more prone to heat
exhaustion and heat stroke when ridden in the sun in hot weather. Although
the author raised the question, the best answer she could provide was that
some people think that dark colored horses are more prone to such heat
injuries. "Some people think"...? Whether dark colored horses build up
more body heat and thus suffer more physical stress in the hot sun than
lighter colored ones can easily be tested and measured scientifically
in controlled experiments, and even short of that, it is the sort of question
that could be answered reasonably well empirically just through observation
and systematic data gathering. Having accurate and definitive information
on such a matter should be of great concern to all endurance riders and
to all horse owners in the hotter climates/areas, as well as being of significant
interest to anyone who rides in hot weather. Yet it appears that the prevailing
"knowledge" on this matter, as with so much of equestrian "knowledge",
consists mainly of individuals' opinions formed on the basis of small bits
of anecdotal evidence and traditional beliefs.
Equine survival and endurance in different climates was of critical
importance to cavalry forces, especially those which operated in a wide
range of climates and terrains. Differences in the suitability of horses
of different colors to various environments is therefore a subject which
should have received serious attention from classical times onward, yet
seems to have been largely ignored. The subject was, however, at
least briefly addressed in a scientifically sound manner in military literature
of the early 20th century just before cavalry started to be replaced
by mechanized transport. The primary American work on the question of horse
color was done by Lt. Col. Charles E. Woodruff of the US Army Medical Corps,
and originally published in two articles in U.S. Cavalry Journal
in 1912; "The Restricted Climatic Environment of Horses", and "The Best
Color for Horses in the Tropics". A condensation/compilation of those articles
is presented here.
(It should be noted that early in the 20th century, Arabians were
not common in the USA -- only about 300 total even as late as the 1920s
-- with most of those in the country at the time apparently whites and
grays; thus Col. Woodruff's frequent references to white being the usual
color of Arabians.)
ABSTRACT/SUMMARY:
Due to differences in
heat radiation, retention and absorption, the colors of skin and hair are
significant factors in animals' endurance and survival in severe climates.
Horses evolved, before and after domestication, primarily in temperate
regions and so color's importance in maintenance of body temperature is
greatest when horses are taken from their natural environments into
very hot and sunny regions or very cold one. Dark skin pigmentation protects
horses from excessive exposure to ultraviolet light in both the hot sunny
regions and in those colder ones where reflection from snow adds to the
amount of UV light exposure. A white coat can have the effect of reflecting
solar radiation and ambient heat in excessively hot areas, and of reflecting
body heat back inward in very cold ones. Black-skinned horses with white
coats of appropriate thickness for the respective climates are thus best
able to endure intense heat (e.g. above body temperature) and exposure
to the sun, and also extremely cold conditions. However, they do
not appear to do as well as darker colors in consistently moderately hot
conditions when midday exposure to the sun is not required A black
or otherwise very dark coat will absorb solar radiation in hot sunny conditions
with potentially fatal results, while it will allow more body heat to radiate
outward in very cold conditions. Thus, blacks and other very dark horses
are the most limited as to their ability to tolerate climate extremes under
most circumstances, but do exceptionally well in warm-to-hot climates where
they are never exposed to ambient temperatures above their body temperatures
and are not required to exert themselves in direct sunlight in the
hottest weather. Horses of the lighter and darker intermediate
colors/shades, respectively, fall close to whites and blacks in their endurance/survival
characteristics. Those of the mid-range generally do reasonably well
in most moderate climates, but there may be optimum climate-color match
ranges for them.
ARTICLE: The Effects
of Hair and Skin Color on Survival and Endurance of Horses in Various Climates,
condensed/compiled from articles by Lt. Col Charles E. Woodruff, Medical
Corps, U.S. Army
To emphasize the law of environmental adjustment
in man, European anthropologists have recently been calling attention to
the fact that each variety of domesticated horse is also adjusted to a
very limited climatic environment. We have been deceived by its apparent
ability to survive anywhere and everywhere, but as a matter of fact, it
is now discovered that in spite of our utmost endeavours to guard a migrated
horse from lethal influences of its new home, the type will die out in
time or change to another type. We see such changes in the diminutive Java
ponies evolved by natural selection in a few centuries from pure- bred
Arabians, or better still the tiny agile basuto ponies of the South African
hill country evolved from the cast off Northern European stock of the Boers.
It is therefore impossible for us to breed up a
military horse fit for campaigning in every climate to which our troops
are sent, and the present efforts in that line are sure to result in disastrous
failure. For instance, I am credibly informed that the French cavalry took
to the Boxer campaign of 1900, a lot of Arabian pure-breds, but the horses
quickly died and the troops were then mounted on Mongolian ponies. Both
kinds of horses have black skin as a protection from excessive light, and
white coat as a rule which, in the case of the Arab is to reflect excessive
heat, but in the Mongolian is to prevent [outward] radiation in winter
like polar animals in general. But the Arab has not been exposed
to intense cold for some thousands of years and has not the furry hair
of the Northern type, nor perhaps has he the same air passages to warm
the air breathed in. Conversely, Professor Starling of the University of
London called attention some time ago to the fact that the northern white
skinned horse will not survive in the dry tropics where the white
haired black-skinned Arabian thoroughbred [i.e. pure-bred] thrives.
Pigment is for three distinct purposes which occasionally
conflict so as to force a compromise serving both ends in a survivable
way, but not perfect for either. These purposes are for protection from
light, heat, and enemies. Over 25 years ago [now over 100 years
ago] Dr. Robert Wallace, Professor of Agriculture in the University
of Edinburgh, made the significant discovery that the skin of virtually
all domestic animals in the tropics was black, no matter what the color
of the hair, white skins being the rare exception. Huxley and Helmholtz
both acknowledged it to be a general condition but could not find the cause.
Wallace himself tried to explain the matter , but at the time little was
known of the potentially lethal effects of (ultraviolet) light, and the
phenomenon was considered solely a benefit in heat radiation.. We now know
that every animal is protected from damaging light by skin pigment, hair,
or feathers. So the black skin pigment of tropical animals is a protection
against light. Intensity of sunlight and hours of direct sunlight
are greater as one goes towards the equator, but there are other
factors to consider. Even in the far north where there is usually less
light reaching the earth, the snow glare is terrific, but little of it
can penetrate the thick white coats of the arctic [land] animals, and the
exposed surfaces like the tip of the nose and the retina are heavily pigmented.
Insufficiently pigmented men in the arctic can easily become severely sunburned
on their exposed skin areas and also suffer from serious eye diseases due
to the excessive light, while the darker pigmented Eskimo escapes.
Also, in the arctic there is little or no vegetation to block the sun,
thus the Eskimo needed more pigmentation than the forest-dwelling Indians
of New England who were of lighter complexion despite living considerably
closer to the equator.
Generally though, the darkest skin pigment is needed,
and the blackest animals exist, near the equator, and as these places are
also hot the animals are at a very great advantage in another respect,
for the laws of radiation show that black surfaces radiate heat to cooler
bodies very freely but white ones do not. All these animals therefore are
much cooler for their blackness when the air temperature is less than that
of their bodies, as usually is the case in the tropics where the air is
almost never at blood heat in natural conditions. In shaded stables when
the ambient temperature remains below 100-105 degrees Fahrenheit black
horses will thus be cooler than white ones. But black animals are at a
fatal disadvantage when the surroundings are hotter than they are, or when
they are exposed directly to solar radiation, for by the laws of absorption
dark bodies absorb heat very freely. In such conditions, to avoid the danger,
black animals utilize shelter in the daytime, spending their days in shaded
jungle areas or in the water, or are nocturnal and hide in cool caves and
similar shelters during the days. If we force them into the sun, they suffer
from thermic fever [i.e. the elevated body temperature of heatstroke/heat
prostration] with more or less delirium. [This natural aversion
to activity in the intense sun in the tropics is what led to the saying
in the British tropical colonies, "Only mad dogs and Englishmen go out
in the midday sun." ed. ]
Any wild animal that must go forth in the day time
has another protection - a thin hairy coat of light colored material to
reflect as much of the sun's rays as possible. The most effective is white
and this color is quite common in tropical birds, cattle and horses, but
the more usual color is some shade of yellow - a most important provision
for horses as we will subsequently show.
As we move away from the equatorial regions, the amount
and kind of clouds are most important considerations, for they may reduce
the light very materially if they are between us and the sun, but increase
it if so situated and fleecy that they reflect more sun's rays to us. Sky
glare is sometimes found to give more light than the sun itself, so that
the total light received may be greater than if the sky was cloudless.
Thick mists and fog, however, are very effective in excluding light,
and as the northwest corner of Europe is notoriously cloudy and foggy,
it is found that domestic animals developed there have so little need of
pigment that some of the breeds have "white" skins, which are never colorless,
by the way, for the red blood shines through as a rule making them pink
colored and somewhat protects the lower tissues. Nor are they albinos either,
for they have pigment where needed -- in the eye for instance. They have
stopped having any significant amount of skin pigment because light skin
is a tremendous advantage in conserving body heat in cold surroundings.
Arctic animals are the warmer during the long nights for their white coats,
and as they can not get any significant heat from the faint sun during
the short winter days, they do not need dark coats that could absorb solar
radiation.
Black animals are thus very much more restricted as to
range of temperature than white ones, for they can stand neither extreme
heat nor cold. The black horse cannot stand the cold like the light colored
horses of cold countries, and needs warmer stables and more blanketing
to survive. Moreover, I find that in the tropics the black horse is more
likely to "blow-up" as the teamsters say; -- that is, on a hot trail it
gets thermic fever and dies where the white horse is comfortable. But in
moderately warm temperatures below blood heat, and out of intense sun,
black animals are at a great advantage.
There is not only much evidence that in cold conditions,
black horses are more easily "chilled" , but also suffer more from "colds"
and pneumonia than the lighter colored. On the other hand Captain
A. C. Nissen informs me that at Camp Stootsenburg [probably a US Army
camp in the Philippines. ed] in 1902-03 he commanded a troop mounted
on beautiful sorrels which had been personally selected and brought over
by Gen. Earl D. Thomas, and that it was remarkable how well that these
horses retained condition while the dark bays and blacks were having a
dreadful time with surra and all other diseases. This was due to their
better fitness to the hot climate, for there is no evidence that disease
bearing insects are attracted to one color more than another; though that
is a point deserving further investigation. [Anecdotal evidence seems
to indicate some colors of horses may actually attract more of some insects.
If any readers know of studies on this matter please pass that information
on to the editor. If not, this is a question that would lend itself to
simple studies and experiments that virtually anyone with access to horses
of different colors that are pastured/stabled together could participate
in and may thus be proposed as such in a future edition of JES.
ed.]
In addition to color, size is a factor in the suitability
of horses to particular climate. A larger horse (or animal of any sort)
has proportionally less skin surface than a smaller one in relation to
body mass. Within any give species, wild animals tend to get larger the
further their habitat is away from the equator because a large surface
area in relation to body mass loses heat more quickly, and because most
animals need to put on a significant amount of fat in summer and fall to
get them through the lean winter months. Generally, horses tend to be small
in the hotter climates, and larger in the cold ones. All tropical
horses are small, and we find very large draft horses only in the
cooler regions. Although the small ponies of the northern islands
and regions of Europe would seem to contradict this general trend, their
small size is an adaptation to the limited winter forage available, while
their actual body proportions are generally much "thicker" than horses
of the same weights, meaning that the surface area in relation to body
mass is usually in a ratio closer to that of a Percheron than to that of
an Arabian.
The horse was originally not a tropical animal at all,
but he and all his near relatives, the asses, back to their tiny five-toed
ancestor, lived in relatively dry temperate climates, and, once they developed
sufficient size and speed to survive there, on open plains. A white coat
is the best, both in cold and hot open plains, but it is fatally conspicuous
in wild species, so the wild plains horses' coats were yellow or dun colored.
Yet when domesticated and protected from predators by man, resemblance
to background is no longer a prime necessity and the tendency is for the
domestic breeds to turn white in extremes of climate. The "typical"
Chinese pony is milk white or gray with a black skin in a cold climate,
and the Arabian breed tends to white in a hot one -- and it too has a jet
black skin. The classical desert picture is a white robed Arab on a white
horse, and each has a dark pigmented skin to keep out the light while the
white coat of each reflects the heat. I have made careful observations
among the small horses of the Visayas [also called/spelled: Bisayans
- a people of the Visayan Islands in the Philippines] -- a curious
mixture of Chinese and East Indian stocks -- and I have been amazed
at the enormous percentage of whites, grays, and roans, nearly all the
rest being of yellow shades with few light bay. About the only healthy
blacks were carriage teams which are never exposed to the midday sun. Practically
all colors had black skins, there being no albinos, the alleged albinos
having red or yellow skins and well pigmented eyes. It is very significant
that the best Philippine ponies, those from Southern Luzon centering around
Batangas, are believed to be descended from Arabs, introduced long ago
by the Spaniards, or more likely the North African Barbs which are much
more common in Spain than the Arab. [In The Arabian in Arabia,
Alexis Wrangel repeats a traditional story of the Bedouins that implies
that of white, black ,and brown Arabian horses, the whites had the least
endurance riding into the hot sun. That runs counter to the theories and
data presented in this article. Since the same story implied that black
horses did less well on rocky terrain - something that would seem to have
absolutely no factual or logical basis, it seems most likely that the beliefs
expressed in the story were based on folk lore and superstition rather
than actual empirical observations; an example of how popular beliefs often
conflicted with facts even among cultures which lived with and depended
on horses in their daily lives. ed.]
Observation of predominant colors of horses
in various other locales seems to follow the general patterns. The Texas
native stock is running to sorrel and light bay, as the darker colors do
not survive in such vigor. In the Southwest the pintos are more in evidence.
On the western plains, the most vigorous and enduring are the ugly dirty
yellows, which the cowboys prefer for work, reserving the blacks for show
or pleasure as a rule. In the darker, cooler eastern United States the
farmer prefers the bay for endurance, whereas the Filipino farmer finds
the best are the buckskins with black stripes down the spine. From Fritzwygram's
"Horses and Stables" one would presume that in England chestnuts and bays
are good, but the lighter grades of any color are bad, as we would presume
where there is neither great heat, cold, nor light. In the generally mild,
equitable but often warm, humid climate of Japan, white horses seem to
do poorly in comparison to darker colors, with the white hair's prevention
of radiation of body heat being the likely cause. The white horses become
overheated where the dark ones are comfortable. However, the lighter mid-range
colors are more common in the hotter south of Japan where exposure to the
summer sun would adversely affect the darker colors, and darker colored
horses are more common in the cooler north. The traditional Japanese
pony is very small -- in keeping with the trend to smaller size in hot,
humid climates -- so the military depends on horses imported from
Hungary, Russia, and Australia or half-breeds between those and their native
ponies. The difference in climate between cooler England and hotter Japan
was found disastrous to thorough-breds and hunters from Britain and such
stock is no longer imported into Japan for breeding purposes.
The ass, which is a dun colored animal when wild in the
tropics, has run for thousands of years to gray or white under domestication
in Africa, Asia, and Europe. On the other hand in Northwest Europe any
color of horse will survive which gets stable protection, and as a matter
of fact the white skinned ones are very common as they keep warm in the
winter. There is then ample reason for the almost invariable rule that
our white mules have black skins, inherited either from the black skinned
ass or, what is more likely still, horses that are remote descendants of
white Arabians or Barbs.
The very sweat glands themselves of the horses are evidence
of early evolution in cool climates for they permit of rapid change of
temperature and cooling off by evaporation in a dry atmosphere where hair
had to be retained for protection from cold shortly afterwards. Sweat glands
as a rule are not developed in moist hot countries nor in animals clothed
in wool or fur, as they would be useless and dangerous, and all such animals
have other ways of keeping cool, -- dogs, cats, carabao [water buffalo],
birds, etc. Consequently northern species taken to the tropics
perspire unduly in conditions where the adjusted natives have dry
skins -- man as well as animals. That is why native dark skinned
races of men are often perfectly dry and comfortable in moderate heat,
where a light skinned person will be dripping in perspiration through inability
to radiate. Similarly, the northern horse will not thrive in a moist
hot country, and even when he becomes wild as in South America he cannot
get within 20 degrees of the equator, but he does better in dry Australia,
even in the tropical zone. In the hot sunshine, the darker the horse the
more he frets and perspires, and we can imagine his feelings by donning
black clothes and exercising with him.
When we do take northern stock to the tropics they must
be shaded or they sicken and die. We did not know that the retina was only
sufficiently pigmented to protect from the subdued light of Northwest Europe,
but rather, horsemen were so strongly of the opinion that the stock must
be sunned that they could not realize that sunning was fatal. So, in 1908
in Cuba it was necessary to prohibit unshaded picketing between 9 a.m.
and 4 p.m. to prevent eye troubles due to the light. This is the reason
for the former prevalence of conjunctivitis, iritis, retinitis and blindness
among American horses in the Philippines and indeed quite a number were
ruined in health in other ways before we realized the dangers of midday
exposure. The eye is so shaded from light that a horse can not see much
above horizontal, and high checking may cause injury from sky-glare.
Co. Hawthorn informs me that at Vancouver Barracks [perhaps
Vancouver, Washington state. ed] there was a black horse battery and
one of lighter type, and that the black horses were always in poorer health
-- some dying on a maneuver march which both batteries took together. Some
of this may have been due to harder work extracted of the blacks, but it
seems to show inability to do work in an unsuitable climate. The blacks
are therefore more restricted as to climate, for Vancouver summers are
not tropically hot though the sun can be strong when it does shine.
It would seem that in our hot summers a black when taken
into the suns rays would be better off with a lightweight white cover over
the back and sides as it would then have what nature does for the white
haired Arab. It is worth trying.
Concerning greater susceptibility of certain colors to
medical problems, Veterinary Surgeon W. P. Kelly, of the Quartermaster's
Department has kindly sent me all the references he could find in the text
books but it is not much as so little attention has been given to correlation
of diseases and coat color. White horses nearly always get melanosis
sometime after eight or ten years of age, and dark colors very rarely,
but this is due to the tendency of such densely pigmented structures as
the black skin of white horses to take on pigment if injured. The skin
is evidently irritated by excessive light, for the disease attacks only
the exposed places not covered by hair. It is not known why other horses
are immune.
In passing it might be explained that there are three
distinct ways in which horses change color. The first is by sun-burn [perhaps
less confusing if thought of as "sun-bleach", to differentiate it
from "sunburn" on light colored skin. ed], as when we see our blacks
turn reddish brown -- a natural provision by the way, to avoid overheating
in the sun. The actual color change itself is not transmissible, and the
colts born out of such "burnt" stock are normally as black as their ancestors.
However, black horses vary in their ability to sun-burn, and this valuable
character is inheritable, the offspring generally having a similar degree
of ability to sun-burn as their ancestors. This brings up the second
method - evolutionary change due to survival of the fittest. In wild animals
the variation in change of colors is usually over the whole body - that
is, each hair is the same. Thus, the best color is naturally selected for
survival, so that there is a tendency to solid colors, for these congenital
variations, like the degree of ability to sun-burn are inheritable. Under
domestication we have a third method, for when a solid dark color is taken
to a light country, only a few hairs change at a time change to white --
for some reason we do not understand -- and we thus have grays from blacks
and roans from bays or yellows. These too are inheritable, and as a man
invariably selects the best for breeders, the grays and roans increase
very rapidly where they are the best. That is, the solid colors are domestic
variations of wild species and the greys and roans are domestic variations
of domestic solid colored varieties.
All grays and roans whiten with age and are usually quite
dark when born. By the laws of evolution such late appearing characters
are the most recently evolved, and it is proof that the grays and white
horses [of today] are recent varieties that probably evolved in domestication
as better for the climate conditions than the yellow of the wild varieties.
The northern indigenous dun horses tended to turn white in the winter like
the fox, hare and ptarmigan for then it was an advantage for concealment,
as well as heat conservation. [There is a discussion of the white, Ice
Age, horses in "Recreating the first domesticated horse" in the previous
issue of JES. ed]
The matter of color fitness to the tropics has never been
brought up for serious study, consequently there are no available statistics
as to the relative efficiency, health and length of life of the various
colors of horses. Nevertheless in a few tropical places, I have found that
horsemen have noticed that the light colors and grays are the best.
The blacks are most sickly and shorter lived, if exposed, but if carefully
shaded from 9 a.m. to 4 p.m. , their blackness is a great advantage in
keeping cool. Here and there, I have found teams of gray horses or mules
in perfect condition after years of work on hot trails without a day's
sickness, in conditions which worry, fret, sicken and kill the dark ones.
The only accurate figures obtainable were given me by Captain S.C. Vesstal,
C.A.C., who had a mounted organization at Tampa through the hot season
of 1898:
"We had six blacks, sixty bays, twelve sorrels, and about
seventy grays. These horses were exposed to the sun with very little protection
for about two months. They were all in excellent condition when we received
them. We gave them as much shelter as possible, but they were necessarily
exposed during the day to the sun. Five of the six blacks died, and the
sixth one must have died a short time after we turned him back to the quartermaster.
Several bays died and all lost flesh; none of the sorrels died; all lost
flesh to a much less degree than the bays; none of the grays died; and,
as far as we could see, they did not lose flesh. My recollection, on thinking
the matter over, is that we had three or four roans that remained in excellent
condition; but I can not be certain of this. Nevertheless, it seems to
me that we placed the roans in the scale of health between the sorrels
and the grays."
Major A. J. Robertson, P.C., informs me that in 1903 he
brought back 100 Chinese mules of all colors, for the Philippine constabulary,
and yet eight years later, as far as he knew, only four had survived, and
they had milk white hair and jet black skin. Even in our West, the
Negro soldiers used to say that a white mule never dies. In Manila, it
has been observed that the horses which survive all adversities and become
disabled from age are almost exclusively white, gray, roan and light yellow;
the whites predominating very largely. The average length of life of American
horses in the Philippines is only five years. Major Robertson, from his
experience proposes in the future to buy only white-haired, black-skinned
mules. If other places give statistics half as conclusive as those of Captain
Vestal and Major Robertson, it means that by proper color selection we
can save much expense and keep the stock in better condition and get more
work out of them.
What is needed now is carefully compiled statistics of
horses which die or are disabled in every climate in the world to which
we ship our horses and mules -- including age, color, where bred, when
and where purchased, how long in the new climate before death or disablement,
and whether the animal had been vigorous or sickly as a rule. Even disabilities
by injury should be reported, for the best stock will survive what kills
the weak.
Meanwhile, cities should furnish valuable information
as to the best colors for the tropics, as a very hot wave in summer, in
Chicago, for instance, kills the least fit at the rate of 300 to 500 a
day, and it is safe to predict that on investigation the dark colors will
predominate among those. [Unfortunately, such statistics were apparently
never gathered/compiled as motor vehicles soon began displacing horses
both in the cities and the military. ed.]
Col. Woodruff's original articles included considerable material
on other domesticated animal species and the relation of their skin and
coat colors to their adaptation to different climates. There was also more
comparison drawn to humans, a species which like the horse relies on perspiration
for cooling. There were some statistical data on the horses in Japan which
conformed to the general theory, but which the editor judged ambiguous
both because the horses seemed to be those purchased abroad and were not
known to have suffered any significant attrition due to climate in Japan,
and because of the lack of definite correlation with the relatively small
climate differences cited. Thus for clarity and length considerations the
data were not included in this condensation. A very lengthy footnote about
variation in zebra stripes was left out, as were some discussions of horse
evolution and other tangential subjects including a page or two on variations
in leg callouses /"chestnuts" in the different countries.
REVIEW/COMMENTS:
It is amazing that with lives and nations' security having
been so dependant on the survival of horses during military campaigns,
such basic questions related to color had not been asked and answered long
before Col. Woodruff wrote his articles. But then, armies had until shortly
before that time been sending their soldiers into battle in mercilessly
hot climates wearing heavy wool tunics in bright primary colors....
Assuming the data presented are valid -- and there is
no reason to believe they are not -- the conclusions on the suitability
and survivability of the different colors of horses in severe climate conditions
would appear to be generally sound. Absolute proof of them would require
either much more collection and analysis of data (as discussed below),
or measurement of actual body and skin temperatures, heat buildup and loss,
etc. A number of Col. Woodruff's theories in explanation of his findings,
while very plausible and logical, must still be viewed as speculative because
he did not support them with information that truly showed cause and effect.
It appears that on a few points his theories may conflict with what have
become the accepted theories on evolutionary changes and adaptations. It
is understandable that Col Woodruff would have had to make some intellectual
leaps in trying to explain the reasons behind the coloration/pigmentation
of horses and how those related to the phenomenon of differing suitability
for different climates, given the lack of scientific information available
on the subject at the time he was writing. Ninety years later we still
do not have definitive answers on many aspects of pigmentation of animals
and plants. For example, seemingly basic questions concerning the how and
why of the appearance of bright reds among the autumn colors in tree leaves
have yet to be definitively answered. And when data on tropical trees and
shrubs were recently compiled and studied, scientists were quite surprised
to find that the young leaves on as many as 62% of them fall in the "pale
pink to deep red" color range, and the theories subsequently put forth
as to the reason for this are still very preliminary (The Economist,
Oct. 12, 2002, "The science of autumn: Getting reddy" p75; "The science
of spring: A youthful blush" p76) . So, it is not surprising that the phenomenon
of black versus white/pink skin, and questions of how hair color affects
heat radiation, relative to horses did not receive any great attention
before or after Col. Woodruff's brief examination of them. Given
the lack of more recent studies, Col. Woodruff's articles are valuable
for the information they do contain, and they present a good starting point
for those who want to do further research in this subject area, whether
through gathering of additional data or the direct measurement of body
and skin temperatures. Some further comments can be found in the Research
Methods discussion in this issue of the Journal.
return to index
Weight distribution between
front and back hooves, and the influence of head angle.
Virtually all equestrians know that "horses carry the
majority of their weight on their front hooves". However, the actual
percentage of weight carried on the front versus the rear hooves is less
well known, and one hears various incorrect figures tossed about -- 80%
on the front hooves being one of the more implausible claims that the editor
has heard in recent years. Its also generally known that horses shift their
center of gravity by putting their heads forward/down or back/up but the
actual weight shifts that come with changing the position of a horse's
head and neck aren't widely known.
The following is taken from an article, "Displacement
of the Center of Gravity of the Horse, Equilibrium, and Aids of the Rider",
by W.K.L. Van Helden, published in Holland in 1908 . It is
the sort of information that may have been reproduced by more recent studies
but which isn't readily available or locatable to riders or researchers.
ABSTRACT/SUMMARY:
Although horses do carry a majority of their weight
on their front hooves, the difference in the amount of weight carried on
the front versus the rear hooves of a horse of good conformation
without a rider is normally in the 10% - 15% range . Although the
position of the horse's head and neck does have a significant influence,
within the range of positions they are normally held at when riding, the
greater amount of weight on the front legs/hooves is unlikely to fall outside
of a 5% minimum to 20% maximum range. When seated in a classic/normal
position, a rider's weight was found to be distributed so that almost
twice as much was carried on the horse's front legs/hooves as on the rear
(e.g. 64% front versus 36% rear -- it probably being a misunderstanding
of this distribution of the rider's weight that has led to the gross misconceptions
about how much of its own weight a horse carries on its front hooves),
but a slight shift in position/posture to the rear can make the distribution
nearly equal and actually place a slight majority of the rider's
weight onto the rear legs/hooves (e.g. 48% front -- 52% rear).
ARTICLE: Weight distribution between front
and back hooves, and the influence of head angle. from an article
by W.K.L. Van Helden
Fortunately for the equestrian art,
it suffices that one can determine with sufficient precision the vertical
line passing through the center of gravity of the horse when standing on
a horizontal plane. People have reasoned much upon the situation of the
center of gravity; they speak of it continually in books on training, and
some do not hesitate to draw the line of gravitation of horse and rider
without demonstrating upon what facts it is founded. [The line (or more
precisely, the plane, since a horse is three dimensional) passing vertically
through the center of gravity, that divides the horse's weight equally
from front to rear can be determined by finding the balance point along
the length of the horse (i.e the point at which as much of the horse's
weight is to the front of it as to the rear of it) and extending
a line/plane vertically (i.e. at a right angle to the plane on which the
horse is standing) from that point. ed]
One of the most conscientious observers
of
the horse and his carriage and gait (Von Oeynhausen) makes his line fall
a little to the rear of the withers, when the horse is standing in
a natural attitude, with head neck and shoulders inclined at an angle of
forty-five degrees to the horizon; and the vertical line passing through
the center of gravity of the rider, when sitting erect, he makes pass through
the middle of the upper part of the body of the horse. A priori, we can
say this must be an error; the last vertical must fall nearer the front
legs, because the forehand is heavier than the hind quarters.
Another author, Borelli, pretends ["pretends" used
in the sense of assuming or claiming without substantive evidence. ed]
that this line falls at the center of the quadrilateral formed by the four
legs. This is absolutely impossible, as it is proven that the forehand
is heavier than the hind-quarters, and in consequence the vertical line
must fall nearer the front legs. Von Heydebrand, in his excellent
work on the "haute e'cole de Vienne" pretends that this line passes through
the only spinous process of the vertebra which is vertical, which, according
to him, is the fourteenth. If this were true, the line would fall as Borelli
pretends.
General Morris and the riding master
Boucher have determined the weight of the forehand and the hind parts by
actually weighing horses on scales with movable platforms. They have ascertained
by experiment the weight that the two bipeds have to bear separately. The
weighing machines, says General Morris, were placed in such a manner that
the front legs of the horse stood upon the middle of the first set of scales
and the hind legs upon the middle of the second. [Although this
does refute the various placements of the center of gravity and front to
rear balance point which were based solely on visual assessment while assuming
equal weight distribution on the legs/hooves, it doesn't determine where
the balance point actually is; only the respective amounts of weight on
the front and rear legs/hooves. The article thus shifts focus from center
of gravity to weight distribution on the legs/hooves. ed.] Using
this weighing method, the difference in weight a horse carried on front
and back hooves, without and with riders, was measured.
In later experiments, General Morris
and the Veterinary in Chief, M. Bellanger, obtained with twenty-two horses
the following results:
(shown in kilograms 1 kg = 2.2 pounds )
Average of 11 horses, good conformation, head and neck
light
kg %
Head at 450
Forehand
260 57%
Hindparts
195 43%
Total
455
Difference
65 14%
Head up and slightly flexed neck
Forehand
250 55%
Hindparts
205 45%
Total
455
Difference
45 10%
Head depressed and flexed on neck
Forehand
267 59%
Hindparts
188 41%
Total
455
Difference
79 17%
Average of 11 horses, good conformation, neck short and
head large
Head at 450
Forehand
246 55%
Hindparts
200 45%
Total
446
Difference
46 10%
Head up and slightly flexed neck
Forehand
240 54%
Hindparts
206 46%
Total
446
Difference
34 8%
Head depressed and flexed on neck
Forehand
250 56%
Hindparts
196 44%
Total
446
Difference
54 12%
In the earlier experiments that included
weighing horses with a rider it was also found that the rider (M. Bouchard),
sitting in the academic position [one would assume this means the classic
dressage seating configuration. ed], had distributed his weight of
64 kilograms in the following manner: Forty-one kilograms upon the forehand
and twenty-three upon the hind-quarters. Being seated upright and bringing
the upper part of his body slightly to the rear, M. Bouchard made ten kilograms
pass back to the hind-quarters.
REVIEW/COMMENTS:
As noted, Van Helden's article blurred the distinction
between center of gravity, balance point, and distribution of weight
between front and rear hooves. That, however, does not take away from the
validity and usefulness of the real numbers it provided concerning the
amount of weight carried on the front and rear legs/hooves. The intention
of the experimenters and/or the author was not to produce a comprehensive
statistical table of weight distribution for all shapes, sizes, and weights
of horses, but rather to simply illustrate that distribution and
how it changes. Thus, taking the averages weights in relatively small samples
(i.e. 11 horses with light heads and necks, and 11 horses with short necks
and heavy heads) met the minimum scientific standards. Similarly, the experiments
on weight shifting of a rider that involved a single rider were not intended
to produce definitive information on riders of various shapes, sizes, weights,
etc., and how they shift their weight during riding, but just to
prove and illustrate that a relatively small position shift by the rider
can drastically alter the weight distribution. Thus the "sample of one"
was adequate to demonstrate the phenomenon, though it could be argued that
a rider with a significantly different upper to lower body weight ratio
might have shown a significantly greater or lesser shift of weight with
the same shift in position. In any event, good basic data like this --
as simple and limited as it is -- is hard to locate in the recent literature.
In addition to the better understanding of the basic weight distribution
and weight shifting it imparts, it can be used as the starting point
for many calculations and additional studies
A related aspect of head position and weight distribution
that deserves study is how a horse's weight shifts and how it holds its
head when walking up, down, and along a slope. Do horses alter their
head angles in relation to the ground for "balance" as relates to
vertical orientation and visual perception, or "balance" as it relates
to weight distribution? It would be a relatively simple matter to set up
two scales at heights corresponding to different slopes/angles and
carry out such studies.
There is also the technique for mounting/training
horses prone to buck, that involves keeping the horse standing
facing uphill on a slope. It would be useful to determine what is the minimum
angle of slope that will shift weight enough to preclude bucking or at
least minimize it to the point where it will be ineffective. Although this
could be done empirically for particular horses and riders, and some general
"rules of thumb" arrived at, if the weight shift with increasing
angles could be measured and correlated with the ability/inability to buck,
it would then be possible to work out a formula that would ensure that
the angle of the slope was sufficient for the particular horse and
rider combination.
return
to index
Editor's Column
This issue of the Journal of Equine Studies and
Equestrian Education moves a bit closer to the format planned for
future issues. Although the articles in this issue are drawn from research
and articles done quite long ago, they present information that,
judging from what material has been used and cited by those writing books
for equestrians in recent decades, was not readily accessible and had been
all but lost from the equestrian knowledge base. Bringing to light such
forgotten studies and information is important because they will give current
researchers something to start with if they decide to do research on the
same topics . Even if such earlier studies are judged to be faulty or inconclusive
they will at least provide data that can be re-evaluated in the new studies.
Ultimately it is hoped that as issues are archived they
can be made searchable in their entirety and aggregate. In the meantime
subscribers can copy and save articles in a format which they can search
-- see the terms of use at the end of this issue.
Responses received to the initiation of JES have supported
the initial premise that there is a real need for a journal of this sort.
Additionally, a survey of Internet search engine referrals to the journal
site by search terms indicates that a large number of people are looking
for the types of articles and information JES intends to be providing in
the future. These early indicators would thus seem to confirm that although
the riding and training of horses isn't rocket science, the field is long
overdue for a far more scientific and systematic approach than has previously
been taken.
Since this journal strives to be of maximum value and
benefit to all who are working or studying in equine related fields, your
views and comments are always welcome.
Leonard Leshuk
Editor
return to index
Call for articles
This journal is a forum for those involved in research
on any topic related to riding or training horses or teaching equestrian
studies. As a new journal there is no great backlog of submitted material.
This offers you an opportunity to get your work published in a scholarly/scientific
journal in a few months, in contrast to other fields where it can take
years (e.g. the average economics journal article now takes about three
years from submission to publication).
There are no strict guidelines for submissions. Any serious
study utilizing valid research methods which concerns any aspect
of equine behaviour, aptitude, performance, training/riding, or teaching
in this field, will be considered, as will articles done to scholarly standards
on historical or other aspects of these subjects which contribute to knowledge
in the field. Submissions should be reasonable in length; this is not the
place to try to publish a thesis or dissertation that runs into the hundreds
of pages (though a brief article of a few pages condensing the research
and findings of such would be most welcome). The journal will remain as
flexible as possible in accepting submissions. Those without advanced academic
credentials should not feel intimidated by such "standards". Sound, scientifically
based research is welcome from anyone. While the same standards will ultimately
apply in relation to the validity of research, observations, and conclusions,
submissions from those who do not have academic backgrounds in the sciences
will not be expected to be as formal in structure or presentation.
Advice in structuring experiments, methodology, writing up observations,
and/or analysing data will gladly be given to those who wish to pursue
research and submit their findings. If you have any
questions related to submissions, feel free to contact the editor.
Submissions in electronic/digital form
are much preferred, so as not to require manual transcribing onto computer
media -- the simpler the format/program used (e.g. ASCII or RTF), the better;
meaningful content rather than fancy graphics or a display of the latest
software's bells and whistles are the important and desirable features.
Those who may not have the background
or ability to structure and conduct such research on their own are welcome
to submit questions and observations they have about equine behaviour or
aspects of riding and training that might lend themselves to scientific
research by others.
As this is a peer-reviewed journal,
readers who have scientific backgrounds/credentials and who would be willing
to serve as reviewers/referees for submitted articles should contact the
editor.
return to index
Research methods tutorial
This is an ongoing feature of the Journal for those
readers who do not have formal science backgrounds. It is intended to help
them understand what constitutes a scientific approach to, and research
on, a subject or question, in contrast to unsubstantiated propagation or
acceptance of claims, or information compiled to journalistic standards
in which "checking facts" often only means verifying that someone has actually
made or published specific claims with no concern for their substantiation.
It is also intended, over the longer term, to give such readers the basic
knowledge of research methods required to enable them to participate in
research, and to even structure their own studies and experiments.
This instalment is an informal introduction to the need for sufficiently
large amounts of data for drawing meaningful conclusions.
Terms with special meanings in research context:
sample -- the group of subjects chosen for, and used in, a study.
Since it is usually impossible to gather data on, or conduct experiments
involving, all the existing individuals (e.g. all horses in the world,
all white Arabians, all Morgan mares which get turned out without blankets
when the temperature is below freezing), a practical number is selected
from among them. The group selected is thus considered a "sample" of the
larger/whole group. A properly chosen sample of appropriate size can be
used to draw accurate conclusions about even the largest numbers of subjects.
Ideally, a sample should be chosen in a truly random manner (a "random
sample") to avoid potential errors that might result from a non-random
sample. For example, if we wanted to use a sample to determine the percentages
of people of the various ethnic backgrounds in one suburban county
near Washington, DC, a sample of 2000-3000 would be large enough to give
us reasonable approximation. If we took a non-random sample, such as choosing
the approximately 2500 names that begin with the letters X and Y in the
local White Pages phone book and determining those people's origins, we
would erroneously conclude that the great majority of the residents are
of Chinese origin, with Greeks and other Southeast and East Europeans
the next largest groups -- those being the groups with disproportional
large number of names beginning with Xs and Ys -- and that only small
percentages of residents are of other ethnic groups. However, a good random
sample of that county's residents could be obtained by taking that
same phone book and driving a needle through all 3000 pages and then taking
the one name from each page that had been pierced by the needle. Surveying
that random sample from the whole alphabet would lead to the correct conclusion
that the largest groups of residents are of West and Central European origins,
followed in size by the African-Americans, and that there are significant
percentages of people from many other ethnic groups. (Some of the difficulties
in doing good scientific studies related to horses are in getting large
samples and random samples. In future issues of this journal, some means
for overcoming these problems will be discussed.)
control group -- a portion of the sample being used in an experiment
(or a second sample, ideally selected in exactly the same manner) which
is kept under "controlled" conditions, and not exposed to specific
factors being studied, so as to have a group for comparison and thus a
means of determining if the results of the experiment are other than what
might be expected normally or by chance. For example, if we set up an experiment
to test a claim that adding fish oil to the feed of a sample group of horses
will improve their mental abilities and enable them to learn faster,
the effects to be tested by how quickly they learned to respond to new
commands, it would be a very poor experiment if we only tested the speed
of learning of the same group before and after the addition of the supplement
to their diet. It could be that initially they were slow to learn but were
beginning to increase in speed even before the supplement was added to
their diet, and that it made no difference. Or it could be that the weather
turned cooler just at the time the supplement was added and the horses
were more active, alert and learned better because of the weather, not
the supplement. If we had a "control" group treated exactly the same in
all other ways except getting the fish oil supplement in their feed, and
that group had the same increase in learning speed, we could conclude
that the supplement was not the cause.
data (the plural of datum) -- factual,
documented material used as a basis or evidence for discussion, decision,
and/or conclusions. This is in contrast to anecdotal evidence or accounts
which are generally isolated observations usually related in a narrative
form rather than being put into context with similar information and analysed
in a systematic manner. (Although treating the term data as singular
in American usage is acceptable and now common, treating it as plural stresses
the concept of being more than one isolated bit of information.)
Col. Woodruff's article on horse color illustrates the
need for more than just anecdotal bits of information when trying
to discern patterns and draw conclusions, particularly when there
are many factors and variables that may influence what is being observed.
Although Col. Woodruff did use some casual personal observations that by
themselves would be no more than anecdotal evidence, he compared these
when possible with existing scientific knowledge, and ultimately combined
them with the limited statistical data he had from various sources. His
research encompassed data from a wide range of sources and locations, which
made it less likely that some isolated anomaly would cause distorted
conclusions to be made. Perhaps most importantly, he acknowledged that
the information gathered was inadequate for drawing any more than basic
and preliminary conclusions, and that much more research was needed. (Compare
this with the average self-styled guru of horse training/riding who claims
to have the definitive answers on virtually every matter involving horses,
usually based on limited personal observations and experiences, and perhaps
some similarly poorly substantiated opinions of a few other riders.)
When there are a very large number of possible factors
that are not directly related to the one being studied that could influence
the findings there is a need to study a rather large sample if the findings
are to be valid. This can be illustrated by taking the simplest of examples,
in which there are only two possible outcomes and only one main factor,
chance, affecting the outcomes being observed; flipping a coin. (This is
pretty much stuff we all learned in primary school, just viewed in the
bit more sophisticated context of experimentation, research, extrapolating
the results, and drawing conclusions from the data.)
If you flip a coin once it will come up either heads
or tails. So, if you tried, solely from that very limited experience/data,
to draw a conclusion about what will happen in future tosses (not having
any other knowledge of co | |
